graphic translation:One particular kind of stylized illustration-known as graphic translation-evolved from the poster tradition of Switzerland and Germany in the early parts of the twentieth century.Graphic translation combines some attributes of both icon and symbol.It depicts subject in a literal way,like an icon,but also in a self-consciously abstract way that takes on symbolic qualities. It should be translation shift(翻译转移；翻译变易):This has to do with equivalence There are several approaches as different scholars analyse the translation process based on different theories. Some take into account the cultural aspects of the source language and target language. Others have a linguistic-based approach, like Catford who introduced translation shifts, a departure from formal correspondance in the process of going from the source language to the target language. For example, translating a verb with a noun is a class shift, translating a passive form with an active form is a structure shift. backward translation(后向翻译）:This paper discusses on the mapping of the English preposition at in the context of forward and backward translation in temporal domain based on the temporal sense of at of the English preposition and its extension to different lexical positions in the Arabic language. This can be explained in the way the conceptual mapping sense is used to an underlying concept and finding its lexical meaning in the target language. The forward and backward translation tests are suggested in order to identify the concept of mapping of the three different groups, using the temporal sense, in three semantic mapping categories (SDM, ZDM and DDM). backward translation给你不是确切的定义，但是可以帮助你理解，这个是摘自关于后向翻译的一篇论文里对后向翻译的阐述。 我本人认为像翻译技巧及理论这些东西都是一些总结的方法，要去体会，只要描述正确能体会到了就好，不像其他理科的东西定义要下的非常精确。 愿我提供的能对你有帮助，谢谢！